More than forty years later, the five-forces model (Porter, 1980) remains one of the most influential frameworks for formulating strategy. Yet there is a hole in the model, namely, the force of complements. Porter (2008) has advocated against including complements as a force. He argues that the effect of complements fails a test of monotonicity and must be understood via the existing five forces. However, this monotonicity test conflates the positive direct impact of complements with the ambiguo
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